The Chinese hold a rather loose identification of jade. It is defined as “beautiful stones” in Shuowenjiezi --- an Eastern Han dictionary. According to the mineralogical approach, the term jade encompasses two specific minerals: nephrite and jadeite.
Nephrites, or “soft jade” as it is sometimes called in China, is a silicate of calcium and magnesium. It belonged to amphibole group. Nephrite has been a recurrent material for Chinese lapidary art. Its ancient deposits are yet to be located, but it is widely known that the Shang and Zhou Dynasties onwards, nephrite jades were collected from Khotan in Xinjiang. It occurs in numerous colors: from pure white to various shade of bluish white depending on the amount of iron and magnesium it contains, whereas the yellowish hue is the result of an increase in the amount of ferric iron. Nephrite is marked for the warmth of its lustre, its sensuous tactile quality and implicit beauty.
Also called “hard jade”, jadeite is a sodium aluminum silicate and a member of the pyroxene group. Found mainly in the border between China and Myanmar, jadeite has been substantially mined since the 19th century. Its Chinese appellation “feicui” denotes two kinds of kingfisher --- one with feathers of brownish red (fei) and the other emerald green (cui), highlighting the two most remarkable colours of the stone. Variations in the iron components impart hues ranging from brownish red, dark green to lavender blue. The presence of chromium is responsible for the desirable transparent emerald green. The distinctive appeal of jadeite is best conveyed through exquisite, hair-fine carving.
Traditionally, the nomenclature of jade also includes other kinds of “beautiful stones”. The most common type includes rock crystal, agate and turquoise.
These beautiful stones were admired, fashioned and polished as early as Neolithic period. The earliest extant examples of jades, dated to some seven thousand years ago, were unearthed from the Chahai sites in Liaoning Province. Apart from the excavations in Northeast China, Neolithic jades have also been found in Shandong, the river basins of Huanghe and Changjiang, Southeast and Southwest China, evidencing the wide spread of jade processing industry. Neolithic jades are noted for their great variety, huge quantity and high artistic value. Most of them were associated with totem-worship.
China entered the Bronze Age and developed into a slave society during the Xia and the Shang periods. Bronzes, which seemed to serve more functions than jades, gradually overshadowed the latter by the mid Shang period. However, political and economic stability during the late Shang period brought about a revival of the jade industry. Jades of this period were meant to serve both symbolic and decorative purposes, with double-lined incisions and crescent-shaped eyes being their characteristic motifs. Jades of the Western Zhou period inherited the style of the previous age and shares the same repertory of decorative motifs with contemporary bronzes, yet appearing more decorative with their highly geometrical, stylized and exaggerated motifs.
Although the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods saw tremendous social disturbance caused by warfare between rivaled feudal regimes, they also witnessed the bloom of a whole gamut of philosophical thoughts. This was vividly mirrored in the decorative style of jades. The advent of iron tools further improved the crispness and fluidity of the craved lines.
The rise of national power during the Han dynasty greatly favored the growth of the jade industry. Jades came in greater variety. Particularly remarkable were the burial jades and sword ornaments. Han jades are generally noted for their crisp and confident carving as well as their vigorous style.
Extensive acculturation between China and the West during the Tang dynasty resulted in jade carvings vitally synthesizing artistic elements and spirits of different regions. Particularly notable is the practice of adorning the ground of low-relief carvings with tony striated incisions. Figures were less deified, mythicised and more realistically handled.
The rapid growth of urban economy during the Song dynasty promoted the trading of jades as commodities. Jades finely and vividly carved with birds and flowers were representative of this period. Low-relief carving and line incision fell out of favour while openwork and carving in the round gained popularity. Archaism prevailed as the study of archaic inscriptions on ancient bronzes and steles became in vogue.
The Ming dynasty saw a blooming of maritime trade and a prospered economy. Jades were popular commodity items among people and subjects were often taken from daily life. One of the characteristics of the Ming jades is to carve the principle design in relief against a ground of open work with fret patterns. In terms of abrasion and polishing, they were applied on conspicuous areas only. Jades bearing auspicious meaning were very common in this period.
During the Qing dynasty, jade carvings reached its zenith. Carvers excelled in the carvings techniques and were creative in design. There were a wide variety of type-forms produced and material of the highest quality was used. Carvings are often refined and meticulous. Under the influence of jade items brought along from Hindustan of the northern part of India, a group of vessels with exceptionally thin wall were produced. The skill of openwork and relief carving reached its height in history and was unmatched even by later generations after the Daoguang period (1821-1850) when the Qing dynasty began to decline.
Gold
Gold (jin) is one of one of the Five Elements and represents the West in the Five Directions in the Chinese Culture. In ancient China, the term jin more often referred to metal in a board sense, and metals were classified into five categories according to colour: White (silver); Blue (lead and tin); Red (copper); Black (iron) and Yellow (gold). “Yellow Gold” is the specific term for the element gold in ancient Chinese text. “Gold wares”, broadly including objects made of gold, can be classified into two groups: vessels and ornaments. As early as the Shang dynasty, gold was mainly used for producing ornaments including hairpins, earrings, bracelets and arm bracelets. Ritual objects such as food vessels, wine vessels and musical instruments were made of bronze, a metal considered more suitable for ritual purposes. Gold was also made into thin sheets or wires to decorate the bronze vessels by the inlaying technique. The earliest examples of vessels made of gold include the zhan container and ladle excavated from the tomb of Marquis of Zeng, dating from the early Warring States period, and a boat-shaped container fitted with jade handles from an early Warring States tomb in Zhaoxing, Zhejiang province. The latter vessel is an early example of the combination of jade and gold in one object.
As gold is a precious metal, it has its intrinsic value. During the Warring States period it was used as common currency among the states. Gold discs of the Chu states were unearthed in Anhui. In the Han dynasty, gold was made into various shapes: circular discs, horse hoop-shaped ingots and the “toe of qilin”. In the Tang dynasty, gold was shaped into good coins. The regulations governing the use of gold throughout Chinese history further indicated that gold is also a symbol of wealth, power and status. The use of objects and vessels made of gold was closely associated with rank. In the Han dynasty, only kings, princes, marquises, officials of the first and the second rank were allowed to use gold seals. The Ming court laid down strict regulations for the use of gold vessels: marquises, official of the first and second rank were allowed to use jars and stem bowls made of gold, while other vessels should be made of silver. Officials of the third to fifth rank could use silver jars and gold stem bowls. Officials of sixth to ninth rank were only allowed to use sliver jars and stem bowls, while other vessels were restricted to ceramic and lacquer ware. These evidences illustrated the relationship between gold and social status.
Since the Han dynasty, there was a popular belief that to eat and drink from utensils made of gold could prolong life. Daoist priests attempted to produce the elixir of immortality with mercury and gold. Their experiments led indirectly to the invention of gilding technique on bronze vessels. Furthermore, the Chinese believed that gold and jade could prevent bodily decay because these two kinds of material were highly resistant to corrosion. This led to the appearance of the jade burial suits, which were worn by members of the Han nobility. Even these were graded: the emperor’s suit was sewn with gold wire, those of the nobles could only use silver wire or bronze wire.
There had been a long history of cultural contacts between the Han tribe and the various ethnic groups in the northwest. The nomadic tribes were very fond of gold ornaments and their unique type forms such as belt plaques and goldsmith techniques such as granulation were introduced to the Central Plains. The common motif of animals in combat reflects nomadic culture. In early Tang dynasty, there was a fashion for exotic costume. The buyao headdress worn by Tang ladies was derived from the traditional design of the Xianbei tribe. The belt with extension rings was originally used to carry daily necessities on horseback, but it became a fashionable item of accessory. During the Southern and Northern dynasties, the introduction of Buddhism into China also led to increase of gilt-bronze statues, and the emergence of motifs related to Buddhist religion.
During the Tang dynasty gold was commonly applied to many items of daily life: personal ornaments, horse and harness fittings, drink and food vessels, medical and daily utensils, religious statues, and even on clothing, either embroidered or woven. Motifs on Tang gold wares reflect their wide, often exotic origins: the dragon, phoenix, goat, and sky horse were traditional Chinese designs; the sea beast and lion came from Central Asia; the fox and standing bird with ribbons came from Persia; the parrot, the stylized floral medallion, and honeysuckle came from India. This showed the intense communication between the Tang Empire and the West.
In the Song dynasty, possessing gold wares was no longer the privilege of the nobles. Gold items became commodities marked with names of the workshops, attesting to the large scales production. Gold wares of the Song dynasty also differed from those of the Tang in style and in subject. They became less glamorous and subjects are taken from nature and from daily life such as flowers, plants, birds and beasts, insects and fish, pagodas and buildings.
A number of northern ethnic groups were also fond of gold ornaments. Their gold wares reflect the influence of the Central Plains in technique and in style as there was a gradual process of assimilation of Han culture. The Khitans (916-1125) continued to use the motifs of bird-and-flower and phoenixes, which they inherited from the Tang dynasty. They also had preference for the makara, a creature imported from India to Tang China. In terms of usage, the Khitans used gold and silver to make burial suits for the nobility. The most representative examples are found in the tomb of Princess of Chen state in Inner Mongolia, consisting of gold mask, guilt silver crown, silver filigree netting for the body, gold belt plaques, and gilt silver boots. Excavated material for the Jin and Xixia dynasties are scarce, but they do show similarities in form of Song dynasty prototypes. Yuan dynasty gold wares are more sophisticated than those of the song dynasty. The junctions on gold wires are usually camouflaged by six-petalled motif which is pre-cast, but giving the appearance of granulation.
In the Ming dynasty, goldsmiths made every effort to refine their techniques. Their works are best observed in the finds of the imperial tombs. The filigree gold crown excavated from the tomb of Emperor Wanli was a superb example of technical accomplishment. Many items of jewelry are larger in size than those of the previous dynasties. There was a vogue for the inlay technique using uncut semi-precious stones. In the Qing dynasty, the trend of employing a wide range of material continued. On the other hand, there was great care for fine details. On the other hand, a glamorous effect is produced by incorporating techniques of filigree and inlaying. The use of kingfisher feathers for inlaying was very popular, adding to the colorful palette of stones and pearls. Decorative motifs often contain auspicious meanings.
In the earliest periods, the technology of gold, whether in the form of cat objects, or as gold foil to decorate bronze wares, was closely associated with the technology of bronze casting in the Central Plains. However, over long periods of technical development and improvement, and constant cultural exchange with other ethnic groups, Chinese gold wares developed their own characteristics during the Tang dynasty. The fact that gold is stable and not easily corroded has led the Chinese to associate gold with the qualities of value, steadfastness, stability and faith. This reflected in the Chinese language and metaphor, in which gold is often used in association with jade to refer to all that is valuable and beautiful.
